Inspection determines whether the prescribe standard of quality has been met. This function may be the responsibility of the welding supervisor or foreman, a special employee of the company doing the welding, or a representative of the purchasing organization. The formal welding inspector may have a variety of duties. These may begin with interpretation of drawings and specifications and follow each step to the analysis of test results. His operations are both productive and nonproductive-depending on where they are applied.Inspection after the job is finished as a policing action, rather then a productive function. Important as it is to assure quality, it is a burden added to the over-all production cost. No amount of after the job inspection will improve the weld; it merely tells what is acceptable and what must be reworked or rejected.Inspection as the job progresses is a different matter. It detects errors in practice and defects while correction is feasible. It prevents minor defects from piling up into major defects and leading to ultimate rejection. Inspection while weld quality is in the making and can be controlled may justifiably be looked upon as productive phase of cost, rather than an overburden.Any program for assuring weld quality should, therefore, emphasize productive inspection and attempt to minimize the nonproductive type. This should be the guiding philosophy, even though its implementation may fall short. In most cases, such a philosophy means that visual inspection will be the main method of ascertaining quality, since it is the one method that can be applied routinely while the job is in progress.
• VISUAL INSPECTION DURING THE WORK
In a sense, everyone connected with the job, as well as the formal inspector, participates in visual inspection. A conscientious worker does not knowingly pass on work in which he recognizes defects of his making. Nevertheless, it is usually desirable that someone be assigned responsibility for quality checking each operation. The tools for visual inspection are simple-a pocket rule, a weld-size gage, a magnifying glass, and sometimes a straight edge and square for determining straightness, alignment and perpendicularity.Visual inspection should begin before the first arc is struck. The materials should be examined to see if they meet specifications for quality, type, size, cleanliness and freedom from defects. Foreign matter-grease, paint, oil, oxide film, heavy scale-that could be detrimental to the weld should be removed. The pieces to be joined should be checked for straightness, flatness and dimensions. Warped, bent, improperly cut, or damaged pieces should be ordered for repair or rejected. Alignment and fit up of parts and the fixturing should be scrutinized. Joint preparation should be checked. Often, little more than a passing glance is required in this preliminary inspection, but, despite, its almost casual nature, such inspection can be a significant factor in weld quality.Inspection prior to welding also includes verification that the correct process and procedures are to be employed-that the electrode type and size and the equipment settings for voltage and amperage are as specified-and that provisions are made for the required preheat or postheat.Assuming the preliminary requirements are in good order, the most productive inspection will take place while the weldments is being fabricated. Examination of a weld bead and the end crater may reveal quality deficiencies such as crack, inadequate penetration, and gas and slag inclusions to a competent inspector.On simple welds, inspection of a specimen at the beginning of the operation and periodically as the work progresses may be adequate. When more than one layer of filler meal is deposited, however, it may be desirable to inspect each layer before a subsequent layer is placed.The root pass in multipass weld is the most critical one from the standpoint of weld soundness. It is especially susceptible to cracking and because it tends to solidify quickly, is prone to trap gas and slag. Subsequent passes are subject to a variety of weld defect-creating conditions that result from the shape of the weld bead or change in the configuration of the joint. These can be visually detected by the welder and repair cost minimized if the problem is corrected before welding progresses.A workmanship standard, constructed for the specific purpose, can be helpful both to the welder and the inspector in visually appraising the production weld during the stages of its formation.Visual inspection at an early stage of the fabrication will also detect underwelding and overwelding. Underwelding is in violation of specifications and cannot be tolerated. Overwelding should be of as much concerns to the purchaser’s inspector as to those members of the shop responsible for monitoring costs, since it is a major cause of distortion. Usually the designer has specified a weld size approaching the limit possible in good practice. The welder-perhaps wanting to make certain that the joint is strong enough, or having been criticized for making undersize welds-takes it upon himself to add 1/16 in. to a ¼-in. fillet. Since the weld metal deposited increases as the square of the size, the 1/16-in. increase in leg size increases the amount of weld metal deposited 56%, and has thesame effect on shrinkage stress and cost.
• VISUAL INSPECTION AFTER WELDING
Visual inspection after the weldment has been completed is also useful in evaluating quality, even if ultrasonic, radiographic, or other methods are to be employed. Here, as with visual inspection as welding progresses, surface flaws such as cracks, porosity, and unfilled craters can be detected, and may be of such consequence that repairs are required or the work is rejected without use of subsequent inspection procedures. Therefore is no point in submitting and obviously bad weld to sophisticated inspection methods.Dimensional variations from tolerances, warpage, and faults in appearance are detected visually at this stage. The extent and continuity of the weld, its size, and the length of segments in intermittent weld can be readily measured or noted.Welds must be cleaned of slag to make inspection for surface flaws possible. A glass with a magnification of up to 10 diameters is helpful in detecting fine cracks and other defects. Shotblasting should not be used in preparing the weld for examination, since the peening action may seal fine cracks and make them invisible.The objective of visual inspection at this stage is not only to seek defects not permissible under the quality standard, but also to give clues to what may be amiss in the entire fabrication process. If the inspector has a sound knowledge of the welding, he can read much from what he sees. Thus, the presence of excessive porosity and slag inclusions may be a tip-off to the fact that current is not adequate, no matter what the dial readings may be. Subsequent tests will also give clues to faults in equipment or procedures, but the information acquired through visual examination permits corrections to be made before the results from complicated tests are available.Only the surface defects in welds are visible to the eye, and the specifications or applicable codes may require that the internal portion of the weld and the adjacent metal zones also be examined. Additionally, the application may require assurance that the chemical composition of the weld metal has not change beyond specified limits. Thus, other inspection methods capable of gathering such information may be necessary.These methods may be destructive or nondestructive. Destructive methods, obviously, cannot apply to production fabrication, other than for the testing to destruction of prototypes, “first unit,” or sparsely selected samples. In large weldments-building framing, for example-their use would be out of the question, but in an airframe component a periodic test to destruction may be regarded as essential to assurance of quality.Nondestructive methods of testing welds include radiographic, ultrasonic, magnetic-particle and penetrant techniques. Proof testing is a mechanical method of determining whether the weld and other parts of the fabrication will withstand certain stresses encountered in service.Chemical and metallographic methods of inspection may be completely nondestructive or destructive in a very minor way and to a reparable extent. If a sample for chemical or metallographic analysis is taken from a run-out portion of the weld bead, there is no damage; if a core drill is used to remove the sample from the weld proper, a hole results that must be repaired.It should be noted that nondestructive proof of the existence of a flaw does not measure its influence on the serviceability of the product. Only destructive tests have the potential for giving such information. Presumably, the specification or code requiring the nondestructive test is based on a correlation between the flaw and some characteristic affecting service. If such correlations have not been established, the nondestructive test may well give nothing more than someone’s opinion as to what is good or bad.The tendency in all matters pertaining to welded structures is to overdo factors affecting strength and safety, which means that flaws unlikely to influence serviceability may be the cause for rejection of the weld. In highly critical engineering structures, this overly cautious approach is justifiable, but in less critical applications some relaxation in the demands for flawless welds may be in order. Both laboratory destructive tests of segments of fabricated structures and tests to destruction of whole units where size and cost permit are useful in determining how much significance should be attributed to nondestructively revealed flaws. Also the judgments of skilled and experienced interpreters of nondestructive data may be invaluable when a correlation between the flaw and serviceability has not been established.If, however, the code or specification demands that a weld be rejected or repaired because of a discovered flaw, that code or specification must be followed.
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
Radiographic inspection is one of the most widely used techniques for showing the presence and nature of macroscopic defects and other discontinuities in the interior of welds. This test method is based on the ability of X-rays and gamma rays to penetrate metal and other opaque materials and produce an image on sensitized film or on a fluorescent screen. The term “X-ray quality,” widely used to imply high quality in welds, arises from the inspection method.X-rays, which have a wave length 1/10,000 that of visible light, are produced by high-voltage generators. The depth to which the opaque material can be penetrated depends on the power of the generator. Portable units rated up to 2,000 kilovolts are available and used in weld inspection. The higher power machines, operating between 1,000 and 2,000 kilovolts, will penetrate from five to nine inches of steel.Gamma rays are produced by the atomic disintegration of radioisotopes. They are similar to X-rays, except the wavelength is usually shorter than those X-rays produced with lower-voltage equipment. X-rays generated at 1,000 kilovolts or higher, for all practical purposes, appear to be identical to the gamma rays produced by radioisotopes. While the sort wave lengths of gamma rays allow penetration to considerable depth, exposure times required to get an interpretable picture are usually many times longer than with X-rays, because of the lower intensity of the radiation. The level of radiation is directly proportional to the amount of the radioisotope used.When X-rays or gamma rays are directed at a section of a weldment, not all of the radiation gets through the metal and to the film placed behind it. Some is absorbed, and the denser or thicker the metal, the greater the absorption. Should there be a cavity in the weld interior, such as a blow-hole or internal crack, the radiation will have less metal to pass thorough than in sound weld. Consequently, there will be less absorption in the defective area and a greater amount of radiation striking he film. After development, the defect will show up in its shape and size as a black or darker area on the film.The image picture is called a radiograph. Radiographs made with X-rays are referred to as exographs, those made with gamma rays, as gammagraphs.Radiographic equipment require careful following of instructions for their proper use. Person responsible for radiographic inspection should make themselves thoroughly familiar with the equipment, reading carefully the manufacturer‘s literature and giving due attention to recommended usage, details of operation, applicable films, and safety precautions. An understanding of principles of X-rays generation, radioisotope decay and film sensitization and development should be acquired by the professional inspector or radiographic technician and will be helpful in his work.In the shop or field use of radiographic equipment, the parameters affecting the reliability and interpretative value of the image are sharpness and contrast. Radiographic methods should give a ”sensitivity” of at least 2%. The term sensitivity is used to denote the least percentage of difference in weld thickness that can be detected visually on a radiograph. The ability of an observer to detect such a thickness difference depends on the sharpness of outline of the image and its contras with the background. Thus, if a fine crack is to be observable as a crack, its image must be outline enough to give a recognizable form and must so contrast with the background that no question arises as to the presence of a discontinuity.It can be easily seen that a radiograph could be so much off in sharpness and contras that it would fail reveal a defect. To be sure that this doesn’t happen, a gage known as penetrameter is used on the side of the weld away from the film. An ASME Boiler Code Penetrameter is a thin strip of metal with the same absorption characteristics as the weld metal. When a weld is to be X-rayed, a penetrameter with a thickness equal or less than 2% of the weld thickness is selected. A lead numeral at one end shows the thickness of weld for which the penetrameter is to be used. For reference purposes, three holes are drilled in the face of the gage, the diameters of which are multiples of the penetrameter thickness. The appearance of the image of the penetrameter on the radiographic film tells the observer whether he has the minimum of 2% sensitivity and adequate sharpness and contrast for meaningful interpretation. In the hands of skilled inspector, use of the penetrameter also gives other items of information. Sharp image delineation gives assurance that the radiographic procedure is correct. The presence of a penetrameter image is also evidence that can be presented at any time later to prove that the weld was radiographed properly.Radiograph show a variety of weld defects. An inspector’s ability to recognize defects and identify them is largely a matter of experience. Film-handling marks and streaks, fog, and spots caused by errors in the film-developing procedure complicate identification. Surface defects will also show on the film and must be recognized.The angle of exposure has an influence on the radiograph. An X-ray picture of the interior of a weld may be viewed on a fluorescent screen a well as on developed film. These make possible rapid, low-cost inspection, but definition is poorer.A radiograph compresses into one plane all the indications of defects that occur throughout the weld. Thus, the radiograph tends to give an exaggerated impression of scattered types of defects, such as porosity or inclusions. Unless allowance is made for this fact, particularly on thick plates, a weld that is entirely adequate for its function could be ruled defective.Consider the volume of weldment contains a number of distributed particles or spots of porosity. On the radiographic film, these appear to exist in a single plane-which could be interpreted as evidence of an excessive number of particles or voids in some section of the volume. When the slice of the volume, however, is cut, it is seen that it contains only three spots. Any failure due to an applied force would have to occur in some finite section. The three tiny particles or voids in this sample are unlikely to predetermine or accelerate failure. Thus, the radiographic picture of this condition is misleading.Because the streaks throughout the member are accumulated on the radiographic film, one might gain the impression that they constitute a sizeable proportion of the material. But when a section is removed and viewed from a different direction, it is seen that the streaks take up only a minute percentage of the cross section.Radiography is useful in the qualification of welders. The individual’s ability to produce welds conforming to specification requirements is readily determined by an examination of welds produced on test plates. The procedure is also useful in evaluating processes proposed for a particular application. When radiography is required by the specifications governing the welding, written procedures for radiography are usually included. In this way, the purchaser exercises control over the inspection and specifies exactly what is wanted to meet his requirements.Since radiation from X-ray machines or radioisotope sources can be damaging to body tissue when the exposure is excessive, safety precautions must be taken. The American Standard Safety Code for the Industrial Use of X-ray should be consulted for this purpose
• VISUAL INSPECTION DURING THE WORK
In a sense, everyone connected with the job, as well as the formal inspector, participates in visual inspection. A conscientious worker does not knowingly pass on work in which he recognizes defects of his making. Nevertheless, it is usually desirable that someone be assigned responsibility for quality checking each operation. The tools for visual inspection are simple-a pocket rule, a weld-size gage, a magnifying glass, and sometimes a straight edge and square for determining straightness, alignment and perpendicularity.Visual inspection should begin before the first arc is struck. The materials should be examined to see if they meet specifications for quality, type, size, cleanliness and freedom from defects. Foreign matter-grease, paint, oil, oxide film, heavy scale-that could be detrimental to the weld should be removed. The pieces to be joined should be checked for straightness, flatness and dimensions. Warped, bent, improperly cut, or damaged pieces should be ordered for repair or rejected. Alignment and fit up of parts and the fixturing should be scrutinized. Joint preparation should be checked. Often, little more than a passing glance is required in this preliminary inspection, but, despite, its almost casual nature, such inspection can be a significant factor in weld quality.Inspection prior to welding also includes verification that the correct process and procedures are to be employed-that the electrode type and size and the equipment settings for voltage and amperage are as specified-and that provisions are made for the required preheat or postheat.Assuming the preliminary requirements are in good order, the most productive inspection will take place while the weldments is being fabricated. Examination of a weld bead and the end crater may reveal quality deficiencies such as crack, inadequate penetration, and gas and slag inclusions to a competent inspector.On simple welds, inspection of a specimen at the beginning of the operation and periodically as the work progresses may be adequate. When more than one layer of filler meal is deposited, however, it may be desirable to inspect each layer before a subsequent layer is placed.The root pass in multipass weld is the most critical one from the standpoint of weld soundness. It is especially susceptible to cracking and because it tends to solidify quickly, is prone to trap gas and slag. Subsequent passes are subject to a variety of weld defect-creating conditions that result from the shape of the weld bead or change in the configuration of the joint. These can be visually detected by the welder and repair cost minimized if the problem is corrected before welding progresses.A workmanship standard, constructed for the specific purpose, can be helpful both to the welder and the inspector in visually appraising the production weld during the stages of its formation.Visual inspection at an early stage of the fabrication will also detect underwelding and overwelding. Underwelding is in violation of specifications and cannot be tolerated. Overwelding should be of as much concerns to the purchaser’s inspector as to those members of the shop responsible for monitoring costs, since it is a major cause of distortion. Usually the designer has specified a weld size approaching the limit possible in good practice. The welder-perhaps wanting to make certain that the joint is strong enough, or having been criticized for making undersize welds-takes it upon himself to add 1/16 in. to a ¼-in. fillet. Since the weld metal deposited increases as the square of the size, the 1/16-in. increase in leg size increases the amount of weld metal deposited 56%, and has thesame effect on shrinkage stress and cost.
• VISUAL INSPECTION AFTER WELDING
Visual inspection after the weldment has been completed is also useful in evaluating quality, even if ultrasonic, radiographic, or other methods are to be employed. Here, as with visual inspection as welding progresses, surface flaws such as cracks, porosity, and unfilled craters can be detected, and may be of such consequence that repairs are required or the work is rejected without use of subsequent inspection procedures. Therefore is no point in submitting and obviously bad weld to sophisticated inspection methods.Dimensional variations from tolerances, warpage, and faults in appearance are detected visually at this stage. The extent and continuity of the weld, its size, and the length of segments in intermittent weld can be readily measured or noted.Welds must be cleaned of slag to make inspection for surface flaws possible. A glass with a magnification of up to 10 diameters is helpful in detecting fine cracks and other defects. Shotblasting should not be used in preparing the weld for examination, since the peening action may seal fine cracks and make them invisible.The objective of visual inspection at this stage is not only to seek defects not permissible under the quality standard, but also to give clues to what may be amiss in the entire fabrication process. If the inspector has a sound knowledge of the welding, he can read much from what he sees. Thus, the presence of excessive porosity and slag inclusions may be a tip-off to the fact that current is not adequate, no matter what the dial readings may be. Subsequent tests will also give clues to faults in equipment or procedures, but the information acquired through visual examination permits corrections to be made before the results from complicated tests are available.Only the surface defects in welds are visible to the eye, and the specifications or applicable codes may require that the internal portion of the weld and the adjacent metal zones also be examined. Additionally, the application may require assurance that the chemical composition of the weld metal has not change beyond specified limits. Thus, other inspection methods capable of gathering such information may be necessary.These methods may be destructive or nondestructive. Destructive methods, obviously, cannot apply to production fabrication, other than for the testing to destruction of prototypes, “first unit,” or sparsely selected samples. In large weldments-building framing, for example-their use would be out of the question, but in an airframe component a periodic test to destruction may be regarded as essential to assurance of quality.Nondestructive methods of testing welds include radiographic, ultrasonic, magnetic-particle and penetrant techniques. Proof testing is a mechanical method of determining whether the weld and other parts of the fabrication will withstand certain stresses encountered in service.Chemical and metallographic methods of inspection may be completely nondestructive or destructive in a very minor way and to a reparable extent. If a sample for chemical or metallographic analysis is taken from a run-out portion of the weld bead, there is no damage; if a core drill is used to remove the sample from the weld proper, a hole results that must be repaired.It should be noted that nondestructive proof of the existence of a flaw does not measure its influence on the serviceability of the product. Only destructive tests have the potential for giving such information. Presumably, the specification or code requiring the nondestructive test is based on a correlation between the flaw and some characteristic affecting service. If such correlations have not been established, the nondestructive test may well give nothing more than someone’s opinion as to what is good or bad.The tendency in all matters pertaining to welded structures is to overdo factors affecting strength and safety, which means that flaws unlikely to influence serviceability may be the cause for rejection of the weld. In highly critical engineering structures, this overly cautious approach is justifiable, but in less critical applications some relaxation in the demands for flawless welds may be in order. Both laboratory destructive tests of segments of fabricated structures and tests to destruction of whole units where size and cost permit are useful in determining how much significance should be attributed to nondestructively revealed flaws. Also the judgments of skilled and experienced interpreters of nondestructive data may be invaluable when a correlation between the flaw and serviceability has not been established.If, however, the code or specification demands that a weld be rejected or repaired because of a discovered flaw, that code or specification must be followed.
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
Radiographic inspection is one of the most widely used techniques for showing the presence and nature of macroscopic defects and other discontinuities in the interior of welds. This test method is based on the ability of X-rays and gamma rays to penetrate metal and other opaque materials and produce an image on sensitized film or on a fluorescent screen. The term “X-ray quality,” widely used to imply high quality in welds, arises from the inspection method.X-rays, which have a wave length 1/10,000 that of visible light, are produced by high-voltage generators. The depth to which the opaque material can be penetrated depends on the power of the generator. Portable units rated up to 2,000 kilovolts are available and used in weld inspection. The higher power machines, operating between 1,000 and 2,000 kilovolts, will penetrate from five to nine inches of steel.Gamma rays are produced by the atomic disintegration of radioisotopes. They are similar to X-rays, except the wavelength is usually shorter than those X-rays produced with lower-voltage equipment. X-rays generated at 1,000 kilovolts or higher, for all practical purposes, appear to be identical to the gamma rays produced by radioisotopes. While the sort wave lengths of gamma rays allow penetration to considerable depth, exposure times required to get an interpretable picture are usually many times longer than with X-rays, because of the lower intensity of the radiation. The level of radiation is directly proportional to the amount of the radioisotope used.When X-rays or gamma rays are directed at a section of a weldment, not all of the radiation gets through the metal and to the film placed behind it. Some is absorbed, and the denser or thicker the metal, the greater the absorption. Should there be a cavity in the weld interior, such as a blow-hole or internal crack, the radiation will have less metal to pass thorough than in sound weld. Consequently, there will be less absorption in the defective area and a greater amount of radiation striking he film. After development, the defect will show up in its shape and size as a black or darker area on the film.The image picture is called a radiograph. Radiographs made with X-rays are referred to as exographs, those made with gamma rays, as gammagraphs.Radiographic equipment require careful following of instructions for their proper use. Person responsible for radiographic inspection should make themselves thoroughly familiar with the equipment, reading carefully the manufacturer‘s literature and giving due attention to recommended usage, details of operation, applicable films, and safety precautions. An understanding of principles of X-rays generation, radioisotope decay and film sensitization and development should be acquired by the professional inspector or radiographic technician and will be helpful in his work.In the shop or field use of radiographic equipment, the parameters affecting the reliability and interpretative value of the image are sharpness and contrast. Radiographic methods should give a ”sensitivity” of at least 2%. The term sensitivity is used to denote the least percentage of difference in weld thickness that can be detected visually on a radiograph. The ability of an observer to detect such a thickness difference depends on the sharpness of outline of the image and its contras with the background. Thus, if a fine crack is to be observable as a crack, its image must be outline enough to give a recognizable form and must so contrast with the background that no question arises as to the presence of a discontinuity.It can be easily seen that a radiograph could be so much off in sharpness and contras that it would fail reveal a defect. To be sure that this doesn’t happen, a gage known as penetrameter is used on the side of the weld away from the film. An ASME Boiler Code Penetrameter is a thin strip of metal with the same absorption characteristics as the weld metal. When a weld is to be X-rayed, a penetrameter with a thickness equal or less than 2% of the weld thickness is selected. A lead numeral at one end shows the thickness of weld for which the penetrameter is to be used. For reference purposes, three holes are drilled in the face of the gage, the diameters of which are multiples of the penetrameter thickness. The appearance of the image of the penetrameter on the radiographic film tells the observer whether he has the minimum of 2% sensitivity and adequate sharpness and contrast for meaningful interpretation. In the hands of skilled inspector, use of the penetrameter also gives other items of information. Sharp image delineation gives assurance that the radiographic procedure is correct. The presence of a penetrameter image is also evidence that can be presented at any time later to prove that the weld was radiographed properly.Radiograph show a variety of weld defects. An inspector’s ability to recognize defects and identify them is largely a matter of experience. Film-handling marks and streaks, fog, and spots caused by errors in the film-developing procedure complicate identification. Surface defects will also show on the film and must be recognized.The angle of exposure has an influence on the radiograph. An X-ray picture of the interior of a weld may be viewed on a fluorescent screen a well as on developed film. These make possible rapid, low-cost inspection, but definition is poorer.A radiograph compresses into one plane all the indications of defects that occur throughout the weld. Thus, the radiograph tends to give an exaggerated impression of scattered types of defects, such as porosity or inclusions. Unless allowance is made for this fact, particularly on thick plates, a weld that is entirely adequate for its function could be ruled defective.Consider the volume of weldment contains a number of distributed particles or spots of porosity. On the radiographic film, these appear to exist in a single plane-which could be interpreted as evidence of an excessive number of particles or voids in some section of the volume. When the slice of the volume, however, is cut, it is seen that it contains only three spots. Any failure due to an applied force would have to occur in some finite section. The three tiny particles or voids in this sample are unlikely to predetermine or accelerate failure. Thus, the radiographic picture of this condition is misleading.Because the streaks throughout the member are accumulated on the radiographic film, one might gain the impression that they constitute a sizeable proportion of the material. But when a section is removed and viewed from a different direction, it is seen that the streaks take up only a minute percentage of the cross section.Radiography is useful in the qualification of welders. The individual’s ability to produce welds conforming to specification requirements is readily determined by an examination of welds produced on test plates. The procedure is also useful in evaluating processes proposed for a particular application. When radiography is required by the specifications governing the welding, written procedures for radiography are usually included. In this way, the purchaser exercises control over the inspection and specifies exactly what is wanted to meet his requirements.Since radiation from X-ray machines or radioisotope sources can be damaging to body tissue when the exposure is excessive, safety precautions must be taken. The American Standard Safety Code for the Industrial Use of X-ray should be consulted for this purpose
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